(Reprint  from  June  1919  School  and  Home  Education) 


PROBLEMS  AND  PROJECTS* * 

John  A.  Stevenson 

A critical  study  of  the  literature  on  th§  project 
method  as  applied  particularly  to  the  teaching  of  the 
arts  and  sciences  seems  to  show  that  no  clear-cut  dis- 
tinction is  made  between  the  project  and  the  problem 
method  of  teaching.  Woodhull,  for  instance,  in  a recent 
article  discussing  the  methods  of  science  teaching  makes 
none,  and,  indeed,  it  would  be  quite  fair  to  interpret  him 
as  using  the  terms  synonymously,  for  he  compares  the 
project  or  problem  with  the  topic  and  it  is  clear  that  he 
uses  the  terms  interchangeably.  Again  in  the  same 
article  he  states:  “The  present  need  of  the  schools  is 

for  a large  collection  of  sample  projects,  or  problems, 
which  may  be  used  in  showing  teachers  in  a given  com- 
munity how  to  devise  and  utilize  projects  adapted  to 
different  grade  of  pupils  in  their  own  environment.  ’ n 

THE  PROBLEM-PROJECT  METHOD 

There  is  a tendency,  too,  on  the  part  of  some  writ- 
ers, to  use  an  expression  which  will  not  make  it  neces- 
sary to  separate  clearly  and  distinctly  the  terms  project 
and  problem.  The  expression  which  is  used  is  the 
“problem-project  method  of  instruction. ’ ’ 

Hosic  uses  the  term  problem-project  to  describe  cer- 
tain teaching  situations,  which  for  the  present  writer 
would  constitute  projects.  Hosic  would  consider  the 
term,1  project,  adequate  if  it  were  not  so  closely  identified 
kvith  certain  shop  and  laboratory  practices.  The  term, 
problem,  he  believes,  is  inadequate  because  it  suggests 
ja  purely  intellectual  process.  The  problem-project  ap- 
pears to  be  more  satisfactory  for  Hosic  because  this  com- 
pounded term  emphasizes  both  thinking  and  doing,  and 
points  to  an  objective  result. 

The  writer  is  in  sympathy  with  Hosic ’s  effort  to  in- 
clude in  the  concept,  project,  the  idea  of  a problem.  It 
js  rather  unfortunate,  however,  that  this  was  done  by 
the  use  of  the  term  problem-project  because  of  the  usual 
confusion  in  the  use  of  these  two  terms.  Hosic  does  not 
Confuse  the  meanings  of  the  terms,  project  and  problem, 
neither  does  he  use  them  synonymously.  The  teaching 

^Voodhull,  John  F.  The  Aims  and  Methods  of  Science 
Teaching.  General  Science  Quarterly,  Vol.  2,  p.  250,  Nov.  1917. 

*A  paper  read  before  the  Superintendent’s  and  Principals’ 
Association  of  Northern  Illinois  held  at  DeKalb  May  2,  1919. 


situation,  which  he  describes  as  the  problem-project,  is 
designated  the  project  by  the  writer.  Hosiers  use  of 
the  term,  problem),  is  identical  with  the  writer’s,  to  be 
described  later. 

In  a recent  article  by  Lull  on  the  problem  and 
project  method,  the  author  makes  no  effort  to  present  a 
clear-cut  distinction  between  these  two  terms.  He  makes 
the  point,  however,  that  Kilpatrick  “ holds  that  problem 
instruction  is  a special  case  of  project  instruction.”  The 
following  statement  by  Lull  indicates  that  he  recognizes 
some  difference  in  meaning  between  the  two  concepts. 
“Alternative  suggestions  arise  in  case  of  the  problem 
as  to  whether  one  means  or  another  shall  be  chosen  to 
relieve  a difficulty  or  to  reach  a definite  end.  Or  it  may 
be  that  the  choice  of  an  end  is  in  doubt.  In  either  case, 
there  are  perplexing  difficulties,  and  before  a choice 
can  be  safely  made,  there  must  be  further  investigation. 
Finally,  at  least  a tentative  choice  is  made  of  a certain 
line  of  procedure  or  of  a certain  end  to  work  for,  and 
the  work  proceeds  on  the  basis  of  this  choice  until  it  is 
shown  to  be  leading  the  wrong  way.  Again,  the  problem 
is  predominately  a matter  of  explanation  or  interpreta- 
tion, while  the  project  is  in  the  main  a matter  of  plan- 
ning to  do  something  and  doing  it.  ’ n 

Since  there  seems  to  be  no  sharply  drawn  distinction 
between  the  project  and  problem  as  interpreted  by  some 
of  the  leading  advocates  and  writers  on  the  project 
method,  it  will  be  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  clarity  and 
for  educational  practice,  to  set  up  definitions  which  may 
make  it  possible  to  distinguish  these  two  concepts. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  PROBLEM  AND  PROJECT 

The  definition  of  the  problem  as  proposed  by  John 
Dewey  is  quite  adequate:  “Every  conscious  situation  in- 
volving reflection  presents  a distinction  between  certain 
given  conditions  and  something  to  be  done  with  them; 
the  possibility  of  a change.  This  contrast  and  connec- 
tion of  the  given  and  the  possible  confers  a certain  prob- 
lematic, uncertain  aspect,  upon  those  situations  that 
evoke  thought.  There  is  an  element,  which  may  be  slight 
or  which  may  be  intense,  of  perplexity,  of  difficulty,  of 
confusion.  The  need  of  clearing  up  confusion,  of  straight- 
ening out  an  ambiguity,  of  overcoming  an  obstacle,  of 
covering  the  gap  between  things  as  they  are  and  as  they 
may  be  when  transformed,  is,  in  germ,  a problem.”l 2 


lLull,  Herbert  G.  Project-Problem  Instruction.  School  and 
Home  Education.  Vol.  28,  p.  79.  1918. 

2Dewey,  John.  Problem,  Cyclopedia  of  Education. 

2 


The  definition  of  the  project,  which  the  writer  pro- 
poses for  substantiation,  may  be  stated.  A project  is  a 
problematic  act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  set- 
ting. 

In  this  definition  note  that  (1)  it  implies  an  act  car- 
ried to  completion  as  against  the  passive  absorption  of 
information;  (2)  it  develops  the  problematic  situation 
demanding  reasoning  rather  than  merely  the  memoriz- 
ing of  information;  (3)  it  implies  by  emphasizing  the 
problematic  aspect,  the  priority  of  the  problem  over  the 
statement  of  principles;  and  (4)  it  makes  provision  for 
the  natural  setting  of  problems  rather  than  an  artificial 
setting.3 

THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  PROJECTS  AND  PROBLEMS 

The  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching 
situation  is  the  distinct  contribution  of  the  project  con- 
cept. For  the  sake  of  added  definiteness  it  may  be  well 
to  elaborate  this  point. 

This  question  must  be  answered  in  determining 
whether  the  setting  is  artificial  or  natural : Is  the  prob- 

lem presented  for  solution  by  schoolroom  practice  essen- 
tially different  from  that  found  in  life  outside  the  school  ? 
If  the  solution  is  carried  on  in  the  same  way  and  for  the 
same  purpose,  then  the  problem  has  a natural  setting, 
even  though  it  is  being  solved  in  the  school. 

The  boy  in  an  agricultural  course,  who  determines  to 
test  his  father ’s  seed  corn  as  a part  of  the  school  work, 
is  carrying  on  the  problem  in  a similar  setting  and  for 
the  same  purpose  as  if  he  were  doing  it  as  a part  of  the 
day’s  work  on  the  farm.  The  girl  in  household  science, 
who  becomes  interested  in  the  canning  of  fruit  for  the 
home  as  a part  of  the  school  work,  is  likewise  carrying 
on  the  problem  in  its  natural  setting.  The  making  of 
soap,  the  testing  of  baking  powder,  taking  charge  of  the 
interior  decoration,  with  the  home  interest  in  mind,  are 
problems  in  their  natural  setting.  The  student  who 
finds  in  “Ivanhoe”  romantic  interest  as  his  incentive  to 
read  it,  rather  than  as  a school  requirement,  is  actuated 
by  the  same  motive  that  prompts  the  general  reader  ; both 
are  attacking  the  task  in  its  natural  setting. 

The  term  problem  is  largely  “ intellectualistic  in  its 
connotation”1  and  if  it  were  used  exclusively  it  would 
have  a tendency  “to  over-emphasize  the  intellectualistic 
aspect  of  school  work. 9 n The  project,  on  the  other  hand, 

3Stevenson,  John  Alford.  The  Project  in  Science  Teaching. 
School  Science  and  Mathematics . Vol.  19,  p.  57. 

"Kilpatrick,  W.  H.  How  Shall  We  View  Method?  (Un- 
published article.) 


3 


lays  emphasis  not  only  on  the  problematic  situation,  but 
also  on  the  act  and  its  being  carried  to  completion.  The 
project  makes  provision  for  the  natural  setting  of  the 
teaching  unit.  Without  the  natural  setting  there  is  no 
project.  The  problem  setting  is  artificial,  that  is,  it  is 
not  approximately  a life  situation.  The  project  may  be 
considered  as  the  normal  life  situation,  or  the  problem 
in  its  natural  setting. 

The  foregoing  view  is  indicated  by  Kilpatrick  in  the 
following  statement.  “It  is  at  once  evident  that  every 
problem  vdiich  is  accepted  for  prosecution  in  the  sense 
that  its  solution  is  willed  ex  vi  termini  a project.  In 
this  sense  every  real  problem  is  a project,  but  not  every 
project  is  a problem;  the  problem  method  accordingly 
becomes  a special  case — a most  important  one  to  be  sure 
of  the  project.”1 

This  same  view  of  the  project  and  problem  is  shared 
by  Miss  Krackowizer. 

“Children’s  lives  are  full  of  activity.  They  are  con- 
stantly carrying  out  projects  and  solving  problems  of 
their  own.  In  the  process  of  living  they  learn  to  think, 
because  of  the  fact  that  in  their  activity  they  are  most 
often  carrying  out  a definite  purpose ; that  in  order  to  do 
so  they  must  weigh  and  judge  among  ideas  and  material 
details,  and  select  from  among  these  the  ones  most  per- 
tinent to  the  fulfillment  of  their  immediate  end ; that  in 
working  out  their  definite  purpose,  they  meet  difficulties 
vrhich  need  to  be  overcome  before  the  desired  end  can  be 
obtained. 

“Since  this  is  the  method  of  procedure  of  a normal 
child  or  of  any  normal  human  being  when  under  no  con- 
straint, the  school  should  adopt  it.  ‘ Purposeful  activity’ 
on  the  part  of  the  children  then  becomes  the  aim  of  the 
school.  The  teacher’s  part  is  to  guide  towards  such  ‘pur- 
poseful activities’  as  will  prove  of  greatest  benefit  to  the 
children,  choosing  among  those  directly  available  for 
first-hand  experience.”1 

The  following  definition  of  the  project  is  proposed  by 
Miss  Krackowizer.  “Any  ‘purposeful  activity’  deter- 
mined upon  and  carried  to  a successful  conclusion  be- 
comes a project.  She  defines  the  problem  as  the  situa- 
tion which  demands  the  exercise  of  choice.”1 

The  writer  uses  the  expression  “natural  setting  for 
the  problem”  in  the  same  sense  that  Kilpatrick  uses  real 
problem.  In  the  writer’s  definition  of  project  note  that 
the  project  is  made  to  include  the  problem,  stated  as  the 

krackowizer,  Alice  M.  Projects  in  the  Primary  Grades. 
Pp.  15-16.  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Philadelphia.  Pp.  221,  1919. 

4 


problematic  act.  It  is  quite  clear,  then,  that  the  project 
must  include  a problem. 

The  apparent  difficulty  in  defining  the  fields  of  the 
project  and  problem  is  just  what  might  be  expected 
when  the  less  inclusive  term,  the  problem,  covers  a large 
part  of  the  field  taken  by  the  more  inclusive  term,  the 
project.  The  problem  does  not  make  any  provision  for 
the  natural  setting  of  the  teaching  situation,  while  the 
project  does.  To  make  a sharper  distinction,  we  may 
state  that  the  project  differs  from  the  problem  in  that 
it  involves  action  in  its  natural  setting.  The  project 
carries  with  it  the  implication  of  doing,  the  problem 
suggests  primarily  an  intellectual  process. 

The  distinction  between  problems  and  projects  is  well 
stated  by  Miss  Krackowizer,  “The  process  of  carrying 
out  projects  and  problems  includes  thoughts,  suggestions 
and  activities  rejected  as  well  as  those  finally  selected  as 
pertinent.  If  no  steps  are  taken  toward  the  attainment 
of  a definite  purpose,  the  mental  problem  may  remain  in 
the  child’s  mind,  but  there  is  no  solution  of  it  and  theref 
is  no  project  involved.”2 

THE  MANUAL  PROJECT  AND  THE  MANUAL  PROBLEM 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  problem 
is  not  necessarily  confined  to  the  intellectual  process.  It 
is  quite  possible  to  have  problems  involving  manipulative 
skill,  even  physical  activity,  and  yet  these  may  not  be 
considered  projects.  The  following  example  will  illus- 
trate. In  introducing  the  subject  of  baking  powder  in 
a chemistry  class,  the  teacher  had  the  students  make 
tests  to  determine  the  amount  of  carbon  dioxide  gas  given 
off  by  equal  amounts  of  the  different  brands  of  baking 
powder. 

The  whole  lesson  proved  interesting  and  the  results 
were  probably  better  than  those  of  the  average  laboratory 
experiment.  The  students  carried  out  their  problems, 
and  later  purchased  different  brands  to  repeat  the  ex- 
periment. But  while  this  exercise  may  have  been  effec- 
tive, it  is  a problem  (we  could  well  term  it  a manual 
problem)  and  not  a project,  since  the  setting  was  arti- 
ficial. One  of  the  boys  suggested  that  it  might  be  inters 
esting  to  determine  which  brands  were  economical.  Sev- 
eral of  the  boys  and  girls  then  tested  the  baking  powder 
used  at  home  and  compared  results  with  those  obtained  in 
the  experiment.  They  then  reported  to  their  mothers 
the  efficiency  of  the  different  powders  and  this  resulted 

2Krackowizer,  Alice  M.  Projects  In  the  Primary  Grades. 
Pp.  16-17.  J.  B.  Lippincott,  Philadelphia.  Pp.  221,  1919. 

5 


in  some  cases  in  a change  by  the  mother  in  her  purchase. 
This  latter  exercise  is  a project,  for  it  arose  in  the  nat- 
ural setting,  the  desire  to  help  or  give  advice  to  the 
mother  and  the  act  was  carried  to  completion  in  its  nat- 
ural setting.  (This  may  be  termed  a manual  project.) 

THE  INTELLECTUAL  PROJECT  . 

Again,  it  is  not  necessary  that  there  be  physical  activ- 
ity in  the  project,  that  is  manual  activity.  While  it  is 
true  that  physical  activity  is  usually  considered  a part  of 
the  project,  yet  mental  acts  serve  in  the  sense  of  activity 
in  our  proposed  definition  just  as  physical  acts.  In  a 
course  in  the  “History  of  Western  Europe’ ’ the  teacher 
suggested  that  the  events  of  the  great  war  should  be  fol- 
lowed. One  student  noted  in  his  reading  the  frequent 
references  to  the  proposed  establishment  of  the  country 
of  Poland.  He  asked  the  teacher  “Why  should  this  par- 
ticular country  be  set  up?”  The  teacher  replied  that 
this  would  be  a good  problem  for  him  to  solve,  with  the 
result  that  he  read  widely,  looked  up  references,  and  was 
able  to  give  an  accurate  account  of  the  three  divisions 
of  Poland. 

This  problem  arose  in  its  natural  setting — the  situ- 
ation was  not  essentially  different  because  it  was  solved 
in  school.  It  is  a problematic  act  carried  to  completion 
in  its  natural  setting.  (This  may  be  termed  an  intel- 
lectual project). 

The  manual  projects  are  common  in  the  fields  of  gen- 
eral science,  agriculture,  home  economics  and  manual 
training. 

TYPES  OF  PROJECTS  AND  PROBLEMS 

Four  types  of  projects  and  problems  have  been  men- 
tioned, the  manual  problem,  the  intellectual  problem, 
the  manual  project  and  the  intellectual  project.  An  illus- 
tration of  each  of  these  types  will  be  made  from  the  same 
field  of  subject  matter  in  order  to  show  clearly  their  dif- 
ferences. 

The  subject  matter  may  be  centered  around  the  study 
of  the  electric  bell.  If  the  topic  were  begun  by  making 
an  assignment  in  the  text,  the  student  being  required  to 
master  the  lesson  as  assigned,  without  regard  to  the  nat- 
ural setting  for  the  problem  it  would  be  an  intellectual 
problem.  If  he  were  to  perform  the  experiment  as  out- 
lined and  directed  in  the  physics  manual,  even  doing  some 
construction  work,  this  exercise  would  be  classed  as  a 
manual  problem.  These  are  problems  because  difficul- 
ties arose  and  were  solved  but  not  in  a natural  setting. 


6 


The  student  might  become  interested  in  the  topic  of 
electric  bells,  burglar  alarms  and  take  up  the  subject, 
reading  widely,  in  order  to  familiarize  himself  with  the 
details  of  the  bell.  He  might  do  this  for  the  same  pur- 
pose as  any  one  would  take  on  such  problems  in  life  out- 
side the  school.  The  teacher  might  set  the  stage  for  such 
purposeful  activities.  This  method  of  approach  illus- 
trates the  intellectual  project . If  this  exercise  were  car- 
ried to  the  point  where  a bell  system  were  installed,  per- 
haps in  the  home,  bells  were  constructed  and  burglar 
alarm  systems  were  made,  this  would  represent  the  man- 
ual project . These  are  projects  because  difficulties  arose 
and  were  solved  in  a natural  setting,  that  is,  the  situation 
was  not  essentially  different  from  life  situations. 

The  two  types  of  projects  are  recognized  by  Miss 
Krackowizer  in  the  following  quotation : 

“ There  are  various  types  of  projects.  One  of  these 
types  involves  mental  processes  alone,  without  manipu- 
lation of  material  and  without  the  necessity  of  outward 
expression;  this  is  the  problem  type.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  while  this  type  may  exist  by  itself,  it  is  not 
likely  to  do  so  in  the  child’s* world.  On  the  other  hand, 
all  other  types  of  projects  include  the  problem  type  in 
so  far  as  they  ai'e  not  merely  unconscious  responses.  ’ n 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  manual  problem 
and  the  intellectual  project  are  the  two  concepts  which 
may  cause  confusion  in  making  the  distinction  between 
projects  and  problems . The  guiding  principle  is  to  de- 
termine whether  the  natural  setting  for  the  problem  ex- 
ists. If  so,  the  teaching  situation  is  a project. 

What  is  frequently  done  in  school  is  to  take  the  prob- 
lems away  from  their  setting  in  projects,  with  the  result- 
ing tendency  to  teach  them  in  isolated  groups  with  little 
thought  of  their  function.  To  avoid  this  isolation  of 
elements,  a larger  unit  of  work,  the  project,  is  under- 
taken, on  a functional  basis  and  carried  over  into  ac- 
tivity. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  both  problems  and  pro- 
jects vary  widely  in  the  degree  of  difficulty.  The  boy 
who  oils  a bearing  or  the  boy  who  determines  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  dairy  herd  is  in  each  carrying  out  a project 
but  the  comprehensiveness  of  the  latter  is  far  greater 
than  that  of  the  former.  Again  the  problems  vary  in 
complexity.  For  instance,  the  finding  of  the  product  of 
3 x 6 is  less  complex  than  the  determination  of  the  rela- 
tive superiority  of  the  harbors  of  New  York  and  San 
Francisco. 


7 


CLASSES  OF  PROJECTS  AND  PROBLEMS 

Since  there  is  such  a wide  variation  in  the  complexity 
of  the  problems  and  projects  and  since  there  are  so  many 
situations  which  these  concepts  cover,  it  would  seem  wise 
for  the  sake  of  educational  practice  to  propose  subdi- 
visions which  will  indicate  this  degree  of  complexity. 

Problems  may  be  classified  as  (a)  Simple,  and  as  (b) 
Multi-problems.  Projects  may  be  classified  as  (c)  Sim- 
ple, and  (d)  Complex. 

SIMPLE  AND  MULTI-PROBLEMS 

The  simple  problem  has  its  place  in  school.  There 
are  many  intellectual  difficulties  that  are  not  complex 
and  yet  need  to  be  solved.  The  teacher  may  ask  such 
questions  as,  “ Where  is  Louisiana?  Its  Capitol?  Its 
resources  ? Where  is  Alabama  ? Its  Capitol  ? ’ ’ etc. 
The  teacher  may  ask  a number  of  simple  questions  con- 
cerning the  states  in  the  southern  group,  and  since  they 
are  in  a sense  difficulties  proposed  for  solution,  they  may 
be  considered  as  simple  problems.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  instead  of  proposing  for  solution  a number  of  these 
simpler  questions,  the  teacher  may  propose  one  large 
problem,  which  we  call  the  multi-problem,  and  which 
may  embrace  all  these  simple  problems.  Instead  of  ask- 
ing many  detailed  questions  about  the  New  England 
States  and  the  Southern  States  a multi-problem  might  be 
suggested  such  as  the  following:  Compare  the  two 

groups  of  states  in  respect  to  size,  location,  configuration, 
population,  industries,  harbors,  agricultural  activities, 
hospitality  and  labor.  Or  again,  is  the  Southen  group 
sufficiently  large  to  make  a strong  nation?  Is  the  New 
England  group  ? 

There  are  many  simple  problems  that  could  be  pro- 
posed for  solution  in  the  suggested  study  of  the  two 
groups  of  states.  But  in  the  multi-problem  attack  on  some 
one  complex  problem  which  will  involve  most  of  the  ma- 
terial and  facts  covered  by  the  simple  problem  is  selected. 
“For  instance,  to  quote  from  an  actual  case,  a superin- 
tendent proposed  in  the  geography  classes  which  were 
studying  New  England,  this  question : Might  New  Eng- 

land have  developed  into  a powerful  nation?  The  solu- 
tion of  this  problem,  the  superintendent  reports  to  be  in- 
teresting to  the  children.  Several  problems  arose  and  all 
the  facts  usually  taken  up  by  the  topical  method  were 
utilized.  The  first  minor  problem  was  this:  Is  New 

England  large  enough?  The  student  turned  to  the  ap- 
pendix of  the  geography,  found  the  area  of  the  United 
States,  of  their  native  state,  and  of  New  England,  and 
decided  on  the  negative.  New  England  was  too  small. 

8 


“But  how  does  it  compare  in  size  with  some  great 
European  nations?  was  asked. 

“The  children  named  several  important  European 
countries  and  finally  selected  for  study  the  British  Isles 
and  particularly  England,  as  the  ruling  power  of  the 
British  Isles.  Comparisons  of  area  were  made. 

“The  teacher  then  put  the  problem:  As  far  as  area 

is  concerned,  might  New  England  have  been  a nation? 
Is  New  England  large  enough  to  become  a nation?  The 
class  then  reversed  themselves  and  decided  for  the  affirm- 
ative. 

“Then  the  question  was  put, — Greenland  is  twelve 
times  the  size  of  New  England.  Is  it  a great  nation? 
The  pupils  decided  that  size  was  not  all-important  and 
that  they  mtast  know  whether  or  not  the  people  could 
raise  what  they  needed  to  eat,  and  to  know  this  they  must 
get  facts  about  soil,  seasons,  surface,  and  climate. 

‘ 1 A study  of  soils  was  made  and  a study  of  the  other 
items  of  seasons,  surface  and  climate  followed.  Before 
the  books  were  opened  the  children  were  always  asked 
to  hazard  opinions  about  probable  nature  of  soils,  sea- 
sons, etc.  (This  took  much  time  because  of  comparisons 
made  with  their  native  state.)  They  decided  that  New 
England  could  not  feed  itself  and,  also,  after  protracted 
study,  they  decided  that  New  England  could  not  clothe 
itself.  It  therefore  could  not  become  a great  nation. 

“But  can  England  feed  and  clothe  itself  ? The  study 
revealed  that  it  could  not.  But  since  she  is  a great  na- 
tion, how  is  this  overcome?  By  trade. 

“What  could  New  England  trade  (from  your  knowl- 
edge of  New  England  already  learned)  ? Products  of 
fisheries,  mines,  forests,  etc. 

“Does  New  England  have  more  fish  than  it  needs  for 
its  own  use?  (A  study  of  fisheries  followed  and  the 
question  was  answered  affirmatively).  So,  also,  was  car- 
ried on  a careful  study  of  mining,  lumber-manufacturing, 
etc.  In  each  case  the  children  formed  their  judgment 
and  verified  their  conclusions.  ’ n 

A MULTI-PROBLEM  IN  ART 

Another  multi-problem,  one  in  the  field  of  art,  may 
be  cited.  It  was  outlined  and  carried  out  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  in  Grand  Rapids  under  the  supervis- 
ion of  Charlotte  Calkins.  The  problem  of  the  two  years’ 
work  was  called  the  “House  Beautiful.” 


Charters,  W.  W.  Systematic  Topics,  Multi-problems  and 
Projects.  Paper  read  before  Illinois  State  Teachers’  Associa- 
tion, December  28,  1917. 


9 


The  problem  took  up  all  phases  of  making  the  house 
beautiful.  Principles  of  design,  making  plans,  of  the 
house,  selection  of  the  lot,  and  furnishings  were  studied. 

During  the  two  years  which  this  study  was  carried  on 
the  pupils  were  brought  in  contact  with  most  of  the 
problems  that  arise  in  making  the  home  beautiful. 

It  may  be  said,  parenthically,  that  for  most  of  the 
pupils  this  was  a school  problem,  but  that  to  some  of  the 
pupils  it  became  a project.  One  such  project  was  called 
to  the  attention  of  the  writer.  A girl ’s  mother  was  plan- 
ning to  redecorate  and  refurnish  the  home.  The  girl, 
aided  by  the  supervisor  took  charge  of  the  undertaking, 
and  in  carrying  the  task  to  completion  developed  prin- 
ciples as  she  needed  them.  This  is,  of  course,  splendid 
teaching  for  it  applied  the  art  principles  in  a very  con- 
crete, interesting  and  almost  spectacular  manner.  The 
whole  problem  as  carried  on  by  Miss  Calkins  may  be 
classed  as  a multi-problem.  Instead  of  asking  the  pupils 
to  solve  many  detailed  and  simple  problems  of  art,  the 
large  multi-problem  “The  House  Beautiful’ ’ was  sug- 
gested. There  were  many  simple  problems  and  pro- 
jects involved  in  this  one  large  multi-problem.  It  is 
classed  as  a problem)  because  it  was  not  in  most  cases 
carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting. 

A MULTI-PROBLEM  IN  ARITHMETIC 

Another  interesting  multi-problem  in  the  field  of  ar- 
ithmetic is  reported  by  Clark.  The  problem  was  the 
mathematics  and  business  practice  involved  in  buying 
a lot  and  building  a home.  Such  subjects  as  legal  de- 
scriptions of  real  estate,  taxes,  building  costs  of  different 
materials,  borrowing  money,  mortgages,  and  insurance 
were  studied  in  connection  with  the  many  mathematical 
problems.  This  is  an  interesting  method  of  approach 
but  should  not  be  called  a project  or  a problem-project 
because  the  setting  is  not  natural,  there  is  an  artificiality 
about  it.  This  is,  however,  a valuable  exercise  and  should 
be  given  wide  publicity  but  it  should  not  go  under  the 
name  of  project.1 

A MULTI-PROBLEM  IN  GEOGRAPHY 

A significant  multi-problem  in  geography  was.  carried 
on  by  Miss  Williams  in  an  eighth  grade  at  the  Kansas 
State  Normal  School.  The  problem  was  “To  show  why 
the  trade  of  New  York  is  greater  than  that  of  San  Fran- 
cisco.” The  problem  was  investigated  by  all  the  pupils, 

^lark,  J.  R.  The  Problem-Project  in  Arithmetic.  Chicago 
School  Journal,  Yol.  I,  pp.  15-16.  1918. 

10 


each  preparing  an  outline  and  suggesting  methods  of 
procedure.  The  things  needed  in  solving  the  problem 
were  suggested. 

“1.  The  value  of  trade  in  money  and  quantity  of 
trade  in  tons. 

2.  Description  of  the  two  harbors. 

3.  Position  of  the  two  cities  with  reference  to  our 
country,  to  foreign  countries. 

4.  Articles  of  trade. 

The  various  points  were  discussed  in  class,  references 
reviewed,  and  finally  the  class  adopted  a series  of  con- 
clusions. 

This  is  reported  as  a project-problem,  but  owing  to 
the  fact  that  there  was  no  provision  for  the  natural  set- 
ting, it  is  more  accurately  classed  as  a multi-problem.2 

SIMPLE  AND  COMPLEX  PROJECTS 

Not  only  do  we  find  simple  problems  and  complex 
problems,  but  in  like  manner  we  may  find  simple  and 
complex  projects.  The  girl  who  accepts  the  problem  of 
peeling  potatoes  economically  at  home  may  be  said  to  be 
carrying  out  a simple  project,  but  her  task  is  much  less 
complex  than  that  of  the  girl  who  undertakes  as  her  pro- 
ject the  entire  preparation  of  the  meals  for  the  family  for 
a period  of  a month  with  particular  attention  to  the  re- 
duction of  cost.  The  latter  is  a complex  project. 

Obviously,  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  draw  an  exact 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  simple  and  complex 
problems  and  projects,  but  this  guiding  principle  may 
be  posited.  When  the  process  has  sufficient  complexity 
so  that  it  may  be  broken  up  into  a number  of  problems 
or  simple  projects,  it  may  be  classed  as  complex. 

The  classification  of  projects  into  simple  and  com- 
plex is  recognized  by  C.  R.  Allen.  “ 'Projects’  may  in- 
clude major  and  minor  projects,  the  latter  being  a sub- 
division of  the  former.  For  example,  a boy  might  under- 
take to  raise  an  acre  of  corn  as  his  major  project.  A 
minor  project  connected  therewith  would  be  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil  or  the  test  of  the  seed.”1 

In  order  that  the  proposed  classification  will  be  better 
understood,  a number  of  simple  and  complex  projects 
will  be  cited. 


“Williams,  Jennie.  Project-Problem  Instruction  in  Eighth- 
Grade  Geography . Teaching,  No.  45.  P.  11-15.  A journal  pub- 
lished by  Kansas  State  Normal  School,  Emporia,  Kansas. 

b^llen,  C.  R.  The  Project  Method  and  the  Combination  of 
the  Project  Method  with  the  Phase  System.  Massachusetts  Board 
of  Education,  Bulletin  75,  p.  50. 

11 


SIMPLE  PROJECTS 


The  tasK  of  sharpening  tools,  cutting  to  a line,  plan- 
ing a board,  and  fitting  a joint  in  the  manual  training 
class  when  carried  on  in  a natural  setting  may  be  con- 
sidered as  simple  projects.  The  baking  of  a loaf  of 
bread,  setting  the  table*  serving  the  meal  and  going  to 
the  meat  market  to  procure  a certain  cut  of  meat  may  be 
called  simple  projects  in  home  economics.  Making  an 
analysis  of  soil,  testing  out  varieties  of  seed  corn,  spray- 
ing the  tree  with  a given  mixture,  keeping  milk  records 
for  a week,  selecting  and  preparing  seed  potatoes,  de- 
veloping plan  to  remove  surface  water  around  farm 
buildings,  treating  seeds  with  formalin,  introducing  a 
plan  for  proper  feed  rations  for  cows,  swine,  etc.,  carried 
on  in  the  natural  setting,  are  representative  for  agricul- 
ture. In  art,  framing  a picture  according  to  principles 
of  design,  making  curtains,  the  selection  of  artistic,  but 
inexpensive  wall  paper,  illustrate  the  simple  project. 

In  composition,  writing  an  invitation,  a report  of  a 
recent  athletic  game  for  the  school  paper,  or  a letter  il- 
lustrate the  simple  project  in  composition. 

In  arithmetic,  solving  simple  problems  which  arise 
in  connection  with  some  of  the  home  activities,  viz,  check- 
ing over  the  weekly  grocery  bill  illustrate  the  simple  pro- 
ject. 

In  industrial  education,  Allen  gives  a number  of  il- 
lustrations of  the  simple  project: 

“Telling  a boy  to  oil  a bearing  would  constitute  a pro- 
ject in  its  simplest  sense,  in  that  that  particular  boy 
would  be  made  responsible  for  the  oiling  of  that  particu- 
lar bearing.  Assigning  a particular  job  to  a particular 
boy  in  the  shop  of  the  industrial  school  involves  the  set- 
ting up  of  a project,  in  that  that  boy  is  expected  to  do 
that  job;  it  is  his  job,  and  he  is  responsible  for  it.  In 
the  discharge  of  that  responsibility  he  would  have  to 
apply  certain  special  knowledge  about  the  construction 
of  bearings,  proper  methods  of  lubrication,  etc.,  to  that 
particular  job.  He  would  also  have  to  exercise  certain 
skill,  and  both  the  application  of  this  special  knowledge 
and  skill  would  have  to  be  carried  out  with  intelligence. 
Giving  a district  messenger  boy  a letter  to  deliver  sets 
up  a project,  in  that  he  is  expected  to  deliver  that  letter 
to  the  party  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  and  in  that  way 
discharge  his  responsibility.  In  the  discharge  of  that  re- 
sponsibility he  must  apply  his  knowledge  of  streets, 
routes,  methods  of  procedure  required  to  reach  that  in- 
dividual, whether  in  a business  office,  a hotel,  a private 

12 


house,  etc.,  must  exercise  skill  in  avoiding  accidents  and 
judgment  in  the  proper  performance  of  his  job.”2 

COMPLEX  PROJECTS 

A complex  project  differs  from  the  simple  project 
only  in  the  degree  of  complexity.  As  stated  before,  it 
is  difficult  to  draw  any  sharp  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  simple  project  and  the  complex.  To  illustrate  the 
point  a little  better,  projects  might  be  arranged  in  the 
order  of  complexity  beginning  with  the  least  complex  and 
ending  with  the  most  complex  suitable  to  school  condi- 
tions. The  complex  projects  would  consist  of  the  projects 
in  the  upper  half  of  this  group.  At  the  point  in  the 
scale,  where  the  projects  were  sufficiently  complex  to  be 
broken  up  into  smaller  problems  and  projects,  that  point 
would,  in  general  terms,  mark  the  beginning  of  complex 
projects. 


COMPLEX  PROJECTS  IN  AGRICULTURE 

A number  of  projects  outlined  by  Stimson  in  his  bul- 
letin on  “The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of 
Vocational  Agricultural  Education,”  illustrates  the 
complex  project.  The  project  of  constructing  a concrete 
walk  might  involve  a study  of  the  nature  of  cement ; its 
action  on  sand,  gravel,  and  broken  stone;  its  resistant 
qualities  to  the  weather;  the  seasons  in  which  it  might 
be  used ; the  cost  as  compared  with  plank,  brick,  flagging 
and  asphalt ; the  mathematical  determination  of  propor- 
tions of  sand,  cement,  and  stone  to  be  used ; the  geomet- 
rical determination  of  the  sections  into  which  it  should 
be  divided,  and  whether  it  should  be  crown  or  flat; 
the  geographical  sources  of  the  raw  material  and  the 
commercial  conditions  for  purchasing  the  cement. 

“The  home  project,  or  part-time  plan  of  instruction, 
moreover  fits  in  nicely  in  its  relation  to  the  usual  farm 
activities  of  the  boy.  The  boy  may  help  with  the  milk- 
ing throughout  his  course,  where  the  object  is  to  get  the 
cows  milked  as  quickly  as  possible  and  where  no  records 
are  kept.  During  certain  months  of  at  least  one  year 
the  school  should  require  whatever  time  may  be  neces- 
sary for  keeping  an  accurate  record  in  pounds  and 
ounces  of  the  yield  of  a part  of  the  herd.  This  m)ay  be 

2Allen,  C.  R.  Tho  Project  Method  and  the  Combination 
of  the  Project-Method  with  the  Phase  System.  Massachusetts 
Board  of  Education  75,  p.  46. 


13 


limited  to  the  weighing  of  milk  from  a single  cow  and 
giving  credit  for  what  she  produces.”1 

The  complex  project  in  agriculture  is  well  illustrated 
by  French  under  the  name  ‘ ‘ lung  time  projects. 7 ’2 * *  Such 
projects  as  raising  an  acre  or  more  of  corn,  taking  charge 
of  an  entire  vegetable  garden,  an  apple  orchard,  or  the 
poultry  for  a season,  give  the  scope  of  complex  projects 
suggested  by  French. 

The  student  in  a class  in  Modern  History  who  be- 
came interested  in  the  map  of  Europe  and  decided  he 
would  account  for  the  present  map  undertook  a complex 
project. 

A COMPLEX  PROJECT  CENTERING  AROUND  PARCEL  POST 

A very  complete  complex  project  centering  around 
the  parcel-post  by  C.  W.  Stone  will  be  summarized.  It 
has  been  thoroughly  developed  and  cuts  across  many  sub- 
jects in  the  curriculum,.  It  will  serve  as  a good  example 
of  the  project  worked  out  fully. 

Since  the  children  plan  at  the  holiday  season  to  send 
packages  to  distant  friends  and  relatives  they  naturally 
are  giving  consideration  to  the  various  ways  by  which 
they  may  be  sent.  This  gives  a natural  motive  for  the 
study  of  the  parcel-post  a few  weeks  before  the  holidays. 
This  project  was  undertaken  by  the  fourth  grade  class 
in  the  Iowa  Teachers  College  Training  School.  “The 
main  purpose  was  to  bring  the  subject  before  the  chil- 
dren in  such  a way  as  to  prepare  them  to  use  the  parcel- 
post  service  to  the  best  advantage.  Accordingly,  it  was 
worked  out  not  only  through  general  discussion  in  which 
the  entire  grade  took  part,  but  also  in  their  class  work 
in  handwork,  geography,  arithmetic,  and  language. ? ’ 

The  available  experience  which  the  children  had  for 
this  project  was  ability  to  read  and  write;  a knowledge 
of  simple  mathematics,  including  measurements;  some 
knowledge  of  places  in  relation  to  their  own  locality; 
ability  to  do  elementary  manual  work ; they  had  received 
packages  by  parcel-post  and  had  seen  the  parcel  postman 
delivering  packages. 

4 4 The  main  aims  which  the  teacher  had  in  mind  were 
(1)  to  teach  the  children  how  to  wrap* and  address  cor- 
rectly packages  to  be  sent  by  parcel-post,  (2)  to  teach 


1Stimson,  R.  W.  The  Massachusetts  Home  Project  Plan  of 
Vocational  Agricultural  Education.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education, 
Bulletin  579,  pp.  13-15,  1914. 

2French,  W.  H.  Home  Project  in  Agriculture  for  Michigan 

High  Schools  and  School  Credits.  Published  by  the  Michigan 

Agricultural  College.  Bulletin  No.  17,  1916. 

14 


them  what  might  or  might  not  be  sent  by  parcel-post, 
(3)  to  teach  them  the  advantages  of  parcel-post  ser- 
vice, (4)  to  give  them  practical  problems  in  arithmetic, 
(5)  to  make  a beginning  of  map  reading  by  locating 
places  where  packages  were  to  be  sent,  (6)  to  give  them 
a larger  conception  of  civic  life,  (7)  to  train  them  in 
obedience  to  laws  and  regulations,  and  (8)  to  teach  them 
to  help  other  people. 

The  rules  and  regulations  of  sending  packages  by  par- 
cel-post were  worked  out  by  the  pupils  and  teacher,  the 
larger  part  was  suggested  by  the  pupils. 

The  technique  and  practice  of  wrapping  packages 
was  carried  out  in  the  handwork  lesson.  Here  questions 
as  to  the  cord  and  paper  to  be  used  and  the  methods 
of  wrapping  different  types  of  articles  were  developed. 
Each  child  selected  an  article  and  wrapped  it,  develop- 
ing principles  as  needed.  The  addressing  of  the  pack- 
ages with  its  problems  was  done  in  the  language  class 
and  the  study  of  the  parcel-post  zones  was  carried  on 
in  the  geography  class.  In  the  arithmetic  class  the  chil- 
dren were  taught  to  weigh  and  compute  the  cost  of  send- 
ing their  packages  to  different  zones.  After  computing 
the  cost,  the  packages  were  taken  to  the  postmaster,  each 
member  in  turn  acting  as  postmaster  to  purchase  stamps. 
The  postmaster  then  weighed  the  package,  looked  up  the 
zone  and  computed  the  cost  of  sending  the  package,  re- 
turning the  change  to  the  pupil.  This  work  furnished 
material  for  practical  problems  in  arithmetic. 

Some  of  the  children  actually  sent  packages  which 
they  had  wrapped  in  class  thereby,  testing  the  results 
.of  this  exercise. 

The  package,  which  furnished  the  greatest  interest, 
was  the  one  prepared  for  an  orphans’  home.  The  chil- 
dren brought  toys  from  home  and  made  others  in  the 
manual  training  class  for  the  gift.  The  preparation  of 
this  package,  the  wrapping,  packing,  and  addressing  con- 
stituted one  class  exercise.  A letter  written  by  one  of 
the  members  of  the  class  was  included,  requesting  one 
of  the  children  receiving  the  package  to  answer.  Since 
this  letter  was  chosen  as  the  best  by  a committee  it  furn- 
ished competition,  a motive,  for  the  writing  of  the  letter. 

The  results  of  this  project  are  summarized  by  Stone. 
“The  study  of  the  parcel-post  has  given  the  children 
a practical  knowledge  which  will  enable  them  to  render 
assistance  at  home  whenever  the  need  of  sending  a pack- 
aeg  by  parcel-post  may  arise.  It  has  been  a socializing 
influence.  It  has  made  them  more  observant  of  civic 
relations  and  has  opened  their  eyes  to  the  possibility 

15 


of  their  being  able  even  as  children  to  bring  pleasure 
to  others.  The  whole  series  of  lessons  furnishes  a good 
example  of  the  kind  of  school  work  wThich  is  a part  of 
actual  everydoy  living.”1 

A COMPLEX  PROJECT  IN  PHYSICS 

* The  writer,  in  the  high-school  course  in  physics, 
taught  the  electric  bell  and  its  uses  by  the  project 
method.  Each  year  one  or  more  of  the  school  buildings 
had  to  have  the  bell  system  completely  overhauled,  which 
meant  install  new  bells,  new  wires,  repair  some  of  the 
bells,  find  short  circuits,  and  in  many  cases  make  parts 
for  bells  or  construct  complete  ones.  This  project  was 
discussed  by  the  members  of  the  class  and  leaders  were 
appointed  for  each  phase  of  the  work.  The  principles 
of  the  electric  bell  were  developed  as  needed  in  this  task. 
Usually  this  experiment  resulted  in  bell  systems  being 
placed  in  the  homes. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  complex  projects  proposed 
have  been  of  sufficient  complexity  to  allow  them  to  be 
broken  up  into  problems  and  simple  projects. 

SUMMARY 

It  may  be  restated  that  the  project  is  a problematic 
act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting.  It  differs 
essentially  from  the  problem  in  that  it  provides  for  the 
natural  setting  of  the  teaching  unit  and  lays  emphasis 
on  the  manual  act. 

Problems  may  be  classified  as  (1)  intellectual  and 
(2)  manual. 

Projects  may  also  be  classified  as  (1)  intellectual 
and  (2)  manual. 

On  the  basis  of  complexity  problems  may  be  classi- 
fied as  (1)  Simple  and  (2)  Multi-problems.  Projects 
may  be  classified  as  (1)  Simple,  and  (2)  Complex. 

The  multi-problem  gives  superior  training  in  develop- 
ing the  technique  of  reasoning  and  ‘ ‘ tends  to  make  facts 
interesting  and  significant.”  The  project,  particularly 
the  complex  project,  in  addition  to  developing  the 
technique  of  reasoning,  provides  the  natural  setting  for 
problems  and  carry  the  facts  into  action. 

Making  provision  for  the  natural  setting  sometimes 
may  be  uneconomical.  If  so,  the  problem  method  is  ad- 
visable. 


^tone,  C.  W.  Parcel-Post  Project. 


16 


